General Information About Rectal Cancer

Rectal cancer is a type of cancer that forms in the tissues of the rectum.

The rectum is part of the body's digestive system. The digestive system takes in nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water) from foods and helps pass waste material out of the body. The digestive system is made up of the esophagus, stomach, and the small and large intestines. The colon (large bowel) is the first part of the large intestine and is about 5 feet long. Together, the rectum and anal canal make up the last part of the large intestine and are 6 to 8 inches long. The anal canal ends at the anus (the opening of the large intestine to the outside of the body).

Health history affects the risk of developing rectal cancer.

Colorectal cancer is caused by certain changes to the way colorectal cells function, especially how they grow and divide into new cells. There are many risk factors for colorectal cancer, but many do not directly cause cancer. Instead, they increase the chance of DNA damage in cells that may lead to colorectal cancer. To learn more about how cancer develops, see What Is Cancer?

A risk factor is anything that increases the chance of getting a disease. Some risk factors for colorectal cancer, like smoking, can be changed. However, risk factors also include things you cannot change, like your genetics, getting older, and your family history. Learning about risk factors for colorectal cancer can help you make changes that might lower your risk of getting it.

Risk factors for colorectal cancer include:

• having a first-degree relative (parent, sibling, or child) with a history of colon or rectal cancer
• having a personal history of colon, rectal, or ovarian cancer
• having a personal history of high-risk adenomas (colorectal polyps that are 1 centimeter or larger in size or that have cells that look abnormal under a microscope)
• having inherited changes in certain genes that increase the risk of familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) or Lynch syndrome (hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer)
• having a personal history of chronic ulcerative colitis or Crohn disease for 8 years or more
• having three or more alcoholic drinks per day
• smoking cigarettes
• being Black
• having obesity

Older age is a main risk factor for most cancers. The chance of getting cancer increases as you get older.

Having one or more of these risk factors does not mean that you will get colorectal cancer. Many people with risk factors never develop colorectal cancer, while others with no known risk factors do. Talk with your doctor if you think you might be at increased risk.

Signs of rectal cancer include a change in bowel habits or blood in the stool.

These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by rectal cancer or by other conditions. Check with your doctor if you have:

• blood (either bright red or very dark) in the stool
• a change in bowel habits
  • diarrhea
  • constipation
  • feeling that the bowel does not empty completely
  • stools that are narrower or have a different shape than usual
• general abdominal discomfort (frequent gas pains, bloating, fullness, or cramps)
• change in appetite
• weight loss for no known reason
• fatigue

Tests that examine the rectum and colon are used to diagnose rectal cancer.

In addition to asking about your personal and family health history and doing a physical exam, your doctor may perform the following tests and procedures:

• Digital rectal exam (DRE) is an exam of the rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the lower part of the rectum to feel for lumps or anything else that seems unusual. In women, the vagina may also be examined.
• Colonoscopy is a procedure to look inside the rectum and colon for polyps (small pieces of bulging tissue), abnormal areas, or cancer. A colonoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove polyps or tissue samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.
• Biopsy is the removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope to check for signs of cancer. Tumor tissue that is removed during the biopsy may be checked to see if the patient is likely to have the gene mutation that causes Lynch syndrome (also known as hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer). This may help to plan treatment. Learn about the type of information that can be found in a pathologist's report about the cells or tissue removed during a biopsy at Pathology Reports.
• Immunohistochemistry is a laboratory test that uses antibodies to check for certain antigens (markers) in a sample of a patient's tissue. The antibodies are usually linked to an enzyme or a fluorescent dye. After the antibodies bind to a specific antigen in the tissue sample, the enzyme or dye is activated, and the antigen can then be seen under a microscope. This type of test is used to help diagnose cancer and to help tell one type of cancer from another type of cancer.
• Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) assay is a test that measures the level of CEA in the blood. CEA is released into the bloodstream from both cancer cells and normal cells. When found in higher than normal amounts, it can be a sign of rectal cancer or other conditions.
• Microsatellite instability (MSI) is a laboratory test in which tumor tissue is checked for cells that may have a defect in genes involved in DNA repair. The findings may indicate whether or not the patient has a type of cancer linked to an inherited cancer syndrome such as Lynch syndrome.

After rectal cancer has been diagnosed, imaging tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the rectum or to other parts of the body.

The process used to find out whether cancer has spread within the rectum or to other parts of the body is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment.

The following tests and procedures may be used in the staging process:

• Chest x-ray is a type of radiation that can go through the body and make pictures of the organs and bones inside the chest.
• Colonoscopy is a procedure that uses a colonoscope to look inside the rectum and colon for polyps (small pieces of bulging tissue), abnormal areas, or cancer. A colonoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove polyps or tissue samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of cancer.
• CT scan (CAT scan) uses a computer linked to an x-ray machine to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, such as the abdomen, pelvis, or chest. The pictures are taken from different angles and are used to create 3-D views of tissues and organs. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
• MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
• PET scan (positron emission tomography scan) uses a small amount of radioactive sugar (also called glucose) that is injected into a vein. Then a scanner rotates around the body to make detailed, computerized pictures of areas inside the body where the glucose is taken up. Because cancer cells often take up more glucose than normal cells, the pictures can be used to find cancer cells in the body. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells do.
• Endorectal ultrasound is used to examine the rectum and nearby organs. An ultrasound transducer (probe) is inserted into the rectum and used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. The doctor can identify tumors by looking at the sonogram. This procedure is also called transrectal ultrasound.

Some people decide to get a second opinion.

You may want to get a second opinion to confirm your rectal cancer diagnosis and treatment plan. If you seek a second opinion, you will need to get medical test results and reports from the first doctor to share with the second doctor. The second doctor will review the pathology report, slides, and scans. They may agree with the first doctor, suggest changes or another treatment approach, or provide more information about your cancer.

Learn more about choosing a doctor and getting a second opinion at Finding Cancer Care. You can contact NCI’s Cancer Information Service via chat, email, or phone (both in English and Spanish) for help finding a doctor, hospital, or getting a second opinion. For questions you might want to ask at your appointments, visit Questions to Ask Your Doctor About Cancer.

Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

The prognosis and treatment options depend on:

• the stage of the cancer (whether it affects the inner lining of the rectum only, involves the whole rectum, or has spread to lymph nodes, nearby organs, or other places in the body)
• whether the cancer is related to a defect in genes involved in DNA repair
• whether the tumor has spread into or through the bowel wall
• where the cancer is found in the rectum
• whether the bowel is blocked or has a hole in it
• whether all of the tumor can be removed by surgery
• the patient’s general health
• whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back)